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pH is a consideration when mashing, but the pH of the water itself is generally not significant (unless it's really odd water). See John Palmer's section on Understanding Mash pH at http://www.howtobrew.com/section3/chapter15.html. There is no point in adjusting pH after mash is complete.

My guess is there's plenty of yeast there to carbonate.

Keep the door closed to the extent practical to keep out carbon monoxide.

I don't think it will make a lot of difference one way or the other. You don't have to worry about shaking up the yeast or trub - it will settle out again when the time comes. Shaking up the carboy is a not uncommon technique to try to finish a stuck fermentation.

It's my understanding that a little - or even a lot - of cold break in your wort will not particularly affect your final product.

What's the ambient temperature and what temperature is your carboy?

You can use any form of sugar you want to prime, but they will have different tastes and you'll need to use different amounts for the same carbonation. If you Google "priming sugar calculator" you'll find tools to help you calculate this. Northern Brewer Homebrew Supply has a calculator for 17...

My primary LHBS is Listermann Brewing Company and they have a web presence.

If it really does turn out to be undrinkable, remember the joys of cooking with beer. You might also experiment with making malt vinegar.

If it's still bubbling out the airlock in a noticeable way when it's undisturbed, I would hold off on bottling.

What you have described is not all that unusual. Since the foam is going out, not in, the risk of contamination is basically nil. You need to watch out that your airlock doesn't clog - there are many stories of what can happen if too much pressure builds up in your fermenter, all are messy and...

I used to do primary fermentation in a 6 gallon bucket with no lid and a sheet of plastic covering most of the top. I'm not proud of it; that was how I was taught. The beer was fine except for one batch which turned sour. I wouldn't sweat too much about CO2 escaping some place besides the...

Typically it's referred to as sediment.

Candy corn is not technically grain, FWIW.

I'm a fan of the OXO Good Grips Stainless Steel Food Scale with Pull-Out Display. It measures in ounces (down to 1/8 ounce) and grams.

You will get no bitterness out of dry hopping; you will get quite a bit of aroma and flavor. It is less efficient that boiling the hops, but you don't lose the aroma molecules. You will get flavors out of dry hopping that you will not get by boiling your hops; if this is what you're going for...

BTW - a great many homebrewers use tap water for top-off without boiling it. The advisability depends on the water in your area.

Your mileage may vary. I've certainly seen that - maybe I drink slower.

You could always let the stopper just sit on top loosely without jamming it in until it dries sufficiently, unless you're planning to move it somewhere. You could also wire it in place like they do champagne corks.

Note that chill haze is harmless and does not affect the flavor of the beer. While the beer may appear less clear than you'd like when you pour it into a glass, if it warms up a couple of degrees it will go away and the beer will be clear.